Framework of physical, chemical, structural, and electrochemical characterization tools relevant to energy storage materials and devices. Content here is directly based on contributed descriptions and will be expanded as additional details are finalized.
Thermogravimetry (TG) and Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) provide fundamental insight into the thermal behavior of tested materials.
TG measures material mass change versus temperature or time to characterize thermal events such as decomposition, oxidation, or evaporation. The resulting data profile quantifies thermal stability, material composition, and the kinetics of mass loss processes.
DSC analyzes the heat flow from a sample as it is heated or cooled to a controlled temperature program and atmosphere. This technique quantifies thermal events like melting, crystallization, and glass transitions, providing important data on material thermal properties, stability, and composition.
Composition, molecular structure, electronic structure and chemical distribution of tested materials.
ICP-OES, also known as ICP-AES, is an analytical technique used to test the elemental composition and concentration of various elements in a sample. It uses a high-temperature plasma to excite atoms, which then emit light at specific, characteristic wavelengths that are measured by a spectrometer.
It is a technique that used to identify and quantify trace and ultra-trace elements and their isotopes in a wide range of samples with exceptional sensitivity. It operates by using a high-temperature argon plasma to ionize the sample and a mass spectrometer to separate and detect the resulting ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio.
It is an analytical technique used to elemental composition of by analyzing characteristic X-ray excited by electron beam in SEM testing.
XRF is a non-destructive elemental analysis technique that identifies and quantifies elements in a sample by measuring the characteristic X-rays emitted when the sample is bombarded with higher-energy X-rays, revealing the unique "fingerprint" of each element.
ToF-SIMS is a highly sensitive surface analysis technique that uses a pulsed ion beam (Ga+, Au+, Bi+) to bombard a sample, causing secondary ions to be ejected; these ions travel down a flight tube, and their mass is determined by measuring their time-of-flight to a detector, providing elemental and molecular composition of the top 1–2 nm of a surface, ideal for imaging and depth profiling of samples.
DEMS is an analytical technique that combines an electrochemical cell with a mass spectrometer to identify and quantify volatile products and intermediates from electrochemical reactions in real time.
Sample preparation for physical/chemical analysis of tested materials.
Cross section ion milling is a sample preparation technique that uses a focused ion beam (typically Ar+ ions) to smoothly polish the cross-section of materials/thin film without mechanical damage.
Cross sectional sample preparation for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, thin lamella sample preparation for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis. Chem. Rev. 2025, 125, 20, 9834–9874
PSD is a measurement defining the range and relative quantity of different particle sizes within a material.
XCT is a non-destructive technique which reveals the internal three dimensional (3D) architecture of specimens, including pores, inclusions, and other internal features by using X-rays to scan samples on a rotating platform.
SEM uses electrons to scan a sample surface and produce high-resolution, three-dimensional images. It provides detailed visualization of surface texture, morphology, and microstructure at the micro and nano scales.
AFM is a high-resolution scanning probe technique that maps surfaces at the nanoscale by detecting forces between a sharp tip on a cantilever and the sample, revealing topography, mechanical properties (stiffness, adhesion), and magnetic/electrical characteristics.
TEM, STEM, SAED, CBED, NBED, PED, EDS, EELS, 3D-EM, 4D-STEM, Ptychography, In-situ TEM (light, bias, mechanic, magnetic, liquid, gas, heating), Cryogenic TEM (Nat Rev Phys (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42254-025-00896-4),
XRD is a non-destructive analytical technique that reveals the crystal structure of a material. It measures the unique pattern produced when X-rays scatter from the crystalline samples, effectively acting as a "fingerprint" for phase identification and structural analysis. Chem. Rev. 2025, 125, 20, 9834–9874
CBED is a powerful microscopy technique using a cone-shaped electron beam to study crystal structures, defects, and symmetries in materials.
4D-STEM is an advanced microscopy technique that captures a full 2D electron diffraction pattern at every pixel as a beam scans a sample, creating a 4D dataset (2 spatial dimensions + 2 diffraction dimensions) for rich atomic-level material characterization, enabling unique mapping of electric fields, strain, crystallography, and charge density.
In-situ nanoindentation inside SEM, in-situ picoindentation inside TEM.